Philadelphia Primate Head Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Philadelphia Primate Head Study - Essay Example Some decades ago, the federal government had to suspend the funding of the University’s Head Injury Clinical Research Laboratory. The reigning president back then, Sheldon Hackney, further issued a directive to stop the institution’s use of animal experiments aimed at discovering the best treatment for victims of trauma-related brain damage. The directive served as a timely response to a preliminary report by the National Institute of Health (NIH) aimed at halting a particular baboon research project (Meyer 1). In my honest opinion, the use of primates in studies should be abolished because it is disrespectful to anatomy, unjust and goes against the ethics of beneficence and non-maleficence. In May 1984, Animal Liberation Front (ALF) activists intruded the deserted Philadelphia campus of The University of Pennsylvania and took several videos of animals suffering during various head tests (Orlans 71). The videos captured more than 60 hours of enforced baboon-suffering through bombarding of the primates’ heads using pistons in order to induce brain injuries. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) made claims that the videotapes showed actions of repeated violations of federal policies that govern the humane use of animals in research laboratories (Orlans 71). In the experiments, scientists disregarded the use of surgical asepsis and employed a very insignificant amount of anesthesia to the primates’ bodies. Beneficence refers to an action done for the benefit of others through prevention/removal of harm ("Beneficence vs. Nonmaleficence" par.1). The principle demands that all physicians should refrain from harming their patients. The researchers i n Philadelphia, therefore, through causing the baboons tremendous levels of pain, disregarded the need to observe the principle of beneficence. The painful act also illustrates a significant deal of injustice to the animal. I am of the opinion that, even if an animal has to die,

Asthma and nitric oxide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Asthma and nitric oxide - Essay Example The European Respiratory Society has indicated its conviction in the method that it has already published guidelines to standardize analysis, diagnosis and reference levels in using nitric oxide as part of respiratory treatment (Buchwald, 2005). In the United States alone, 6% those aged below 12 have been diagnosed with asthma and as high as 40% in urban areas. This reflects a 75% from data gather in the 1980's a trend that is reflected globally (World Health Organization [WHO], 2005). Nitric oxide is a highly reactive, prevalent gas in human chemical activity. It can be found in neurons as n NOS or NOS1, in macrophages as iNOS or NOS-2, and in endothelial cells as eNOS or NOS-3 (Bor-Kucukatay, 2005). Nitric oxide is cellularly synthesized by the enzyme nitric oxide sythases denoted by NOS from arginine, molecular oxygen and NADPH. Nitric oxide interacts rapidly molecularly and disperses through cell membranes acting in a paracinic or autocrinic behavior1. Endogenous nitric oxide is a product of L-argining amino acid and NOS. All three isofrms, NOS or NOS1, iNOS or NOS-2, eNOS or NOS-3 are found in the respiratory tract functioning a part in vascular and airway smooth muscle tone, inflammatory respiratory response, ciliary action and in eliminating bacteria, viruses and mycobacteria in the respiratory tracts (Smith et al, 2004). Through connecting throu... Mechanism and Metabolism Through connecting through a metal ion in the cell's protein or through cystine or other S atoms, nitric oxide causes allosteric change in the cell's protein. An example of this reaction is nitric oxide directed at the protein guanylyl cyclase which then creates the second messenger cyclic GMP (cGMP). The body produces oar manufactures nitric oxide to fight bacteria. TH 1cells as part of inflammatory response mechanisms secrete nitric oxide to attach bacterial macrophages or by the production of nitric oxide by through the conversion of nitrates found in food into nitrites (Maddox & Schwartz, 2002). Reaction with super oxide anions the result to the formation peroxynitrite2 (ONOO-) which can lead to break up of DNA and oxidation action in lipids. This can lead to nitric oxide toxicity. Peroxynitrite causes mitochondrial respiratory chain (I-IV) and manganese super oxide dismutase (MnSOD) to generate suroxide anions and hydrogen peroxide, both of which can cause fatal cell damage ("Nitric Oxide Metabolism", 2006). Figure 1 illustrates nitric oxide actions in the body. Functions Nitric oxide serves various functions in the human body. It can act as a catalyst for reactions to microbial attacks, as a messenger or inhibitor among others. It functions significantly in the circulatory and nervous system influencing blood flow, oxygenation of red blood cell and neural messaging (Maddox & Schwartz, 2002). The following are the functions of nitric oxide physiologically ("Nitric Oxide", 2006): Blood Flow Diffusion of nitric oxide into smooth muscle cells allowing for the efficient flow of blood as endothelial cells release nitric oxide at every systole

Describe a patients health condition and needs

Describe a patients health condition and needs PATIENTS CASE STUDY. This essay aims to describe a patients health condition and needs during their stay at the hospital. Patient chosen has a chronic diarrhoea and abdominal cramping, his assessment will be fully discussed using Roper Logan nursing framework and rationale for choice of patient and framework will be considered. In addition, an aspect of care in relation to the clients needs will be identified and the strategies used in achieving the goals and aims of care will be analysed and discussed from a biological, psychological and social perspective. According to (NMC2008) code of professional conduct which stipulated that information about the patient, must be maintained and protected and should only be used only for the purpose it is intended. The patient will be addressed as Mr Abdul Cole in other to maintain confidentiality. Members of the multi-professionals involved in the care of the patient will be discussed as well. Mr Cole a 74 years old man lives with his son and daughter in-law in a two bedroom flat. He was admitted in the hospital due to chronic diarrhoea and cramping abdominal pain. After series of test done by the AE team, he was diagnosed with Clostridium defficile (C. diff.). Mr Cole has history of chest pain and pneumonia. The rationale for choosing this aspect of care is because I was assigned with a registered nursing to carry out the patients admission and all aspect of nursing process. Choosing this patient will also enhance my understanding of care delivery by examining the flexibility and responsiveness of implementing care plan and nursing frame work to changes in patient conditions. Cunha (1998) defines Clostridium defficile as a slender, Gram-positive anaerobic rod which is spore formation and motile and is capable of surviving in the environment for prolong period. Bacteria of this type may be a normal component of gut flora and flourish when other gut organisms are eradicated by antibiotics (Zadik Moore 1998). In 1980s it was identified as a major cause of antibiotic associated diarrhoea (AAD) (Duerden et tel. 1994). It is now one of the most commonly detected enteric pathogens and an important cause of nosocomial infection in nursing homes and hospital (Zadik Moore1998). C. difficile does not cause any problems in healthy people. However, some antibiotics that are used to treat other health conditions can interfere with the balance of good bacteria in the gut. When this happens,  C. difficile bacteria can multiply and produce toxins which then cause illness such as diarrhoea and fever. Diarrhoea results when the balance among absorption, secretion and intestinal motility is disrupted (Hogan 1998). It has been defined as an abnormal increase in the quantity, frequency, perianal discomfort and incontinence (Basch 1987). In Mr Coles case, his diarrhoea was associated with prolonged use of antibiotic to help cure his pneumonia which led to C.diff infection. In other for healthcare professionals to identify patients needs and ways to meet them, assessment has to be carried out on the information obtained by observing the patients general appearance, information from patient and their family, medical and social history, observation and physical examination (Hinchliff, 2003). According to Person et al (2002) nursing process is a dynamic and logical method in which the nurse may sensitively and systematically approach-nursing practice to achieve goals with patient and ensures care is planned and executed appropriately. The nursing process consists of five stages, assessment, diagnosis, planning, implementation and evaluation. Assessment is importance to determine a clients care needs and it is the crucial first step. Patients pattern and behaviours are compared with their current health status to avoid omitting care needed or may be provided care which are not needed. Nursing Diagnoses according to (Carpenito 1993), provides the basis for selection of nursing intervention to achieve the outcome fro which the nurse is accountable. Planning is the stage that helps to decide which problems are priorities, determining the goals for care and selecting interventions to create a plan of care. Implementing involves giving the care with interventions that are appropriate for the clients. Also includes documentation of care. Evaluation is the final step which involves deciding whether the intervention has helped the patient or the plans might need changing. Whilst the nursing process offers a systematic way of looking at care delivery, on its own it is not particularly useful as it does not give any indication as to what to asses. It indicates that care should be planned, implemented and evaluated but again offers little direction as to how to do this. Another way of organising the information needed collected by nurses is using Activity of Daily Living Model proposed by Nancy Roper, Winifred Logan and Alison Tierney (1996), this model can be summarised as consisting of four components, which all contributes to individuality in living , namely; the lifespan continuum from conception to death; 12 activities of daily living, five factors that influence each of these activities, that is, physical, psychological sociological, environmental and politico-economic; and a dependence/independence continuum. Although, all the stages of the nursing processes was mentioned and summarised, this essay only focuses on the process of assessment based o n activity of daily living by Roper Logan et al (1996). According to Miller (2000) assessment consists of collecting and receiving in formation about the patient and identifying any problem that may be detected during the process. It also involves systematic way of organising care through skilful interaction with patients, family and friends to asses how their condition has impact on their activity of living (Roper et al 1996). However, the equality of the assessment will depend on the nurses ability to put together all the sources at their disposal. According to Roper et al (1960), information gained in the initial assessment form baseline from which further information can be evaluated. The assessment carried out was base on Roper Logan and Tierney (1996) nursing frame work. The rationale for choosing this framework is that it uses a list of patients activity of daily living, maintaining safe environment, breathing, mobilising, eliminating, controlling body temperature, working and playing, sleeping, communicating, eating and drinking, personal cleaning and dressing, expressing sexuality, dying. This highlights basic human needs, impact of ill health on patients lifestyle (Andrews 2002). According to Roper et al (2002) the model allows the professionals to concentrates on the physiological functional abilities of the patient to carry out those activities of daily living independently. This essay will focus mainly on activities which are affected by the patients condition. Mr Cole was admitted in to one of the side rooms on the ward as he requires barrier nursing due to his toxic producing C.diff. Diarrhoea and enteric isolation notice was placed on the door of the isolated room. Segregation from other patient must continue until stool cultures are clear of infectious organisms. The policy of my place of practice is to treat infectious conditions seriously and adopt universal precaution such as wearing gloves, apron and gowns, disposing of all excreta immediately to reduce the risk of spreading the infection to others. I was accompanied to the patients side room by a registered nurse to begin the patients assessment. The doors were shut and curtains drawn to maintain patients privacy and dignity. Mr Coles information was collected from various sources such as her medical notes and families. Maintaining a safe environment It is very important that patient is safe in a particular environment especially when not supervised. This includes orientation, alertness and mental being. Mr Cole was very conscious at alert on arrival and during the assessment; he had no hearing or sight difficulties, no physical or learning disabilities. However patient was very restless and uncomfortable due to his abdominal cramp. Communication Ability to communicate effectively contributes to successful assessment, as it builds a relationship with the patient. According to Brooker (2003) communication is an important aspect of nursing intervention for any individual patient. In all form of care situation, the basic of the care is centred around the ability of the carers to form a relationship is deemed to therapeutic in that it based on mutual respect, trust and friendliness, which start from admission onwards (Roper et al 1990). Communication involves both verbal and non-verbal messages that convey feelings and information. The purpose of successful communication is to ensure appropriate social contact and professional interaction to meet the needs of patients and their families (Macleod Clark et al 1991). The provision of clear information and explanation on admission to hospital and prior to medical procedures may result in decreased anxiety, decreased pain levels, a reduced number of complications and side-effects of treatment, improved compliance, an enhanced coping ability and an increase speed of convalescence (Wilson-Barnett 1982). Patient was able to speak clearly he can hear and see but has difficulties communicating with us due to language barrier. Mr Cole understands very little English and was unable to give major information to nursing staff during the assessment. Consent was obtained from Mr Cole for his family to translate and express his needs. It is suggested that effective communication makes a positive contribution to an individuals recovery by acting as a buffer against fear and confusion (Nichols 1993). Other different way of communicating with patient includes body and sign language. Breathing The process of breathing is a fundamental aspect of life it is inevitable and could lead to a fatal consequence when the process is interfered. Breathing helps the balance between carbon dioxide (C02) and oxygen (02) in the blood. 02 is required by the body to release energy at cell level so that the individual can participate in activities. The waste product produced through the use of 02 is C02. During the assessment, we detected that Mr Cole recently had major episodes of pneumonia and chest pain, which might still have some impact on his breathing and health. Respiration supplies the body with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide through diffusion between alveolar of lungs and blood in the capillary (Marieb, 1998), changes could lead to tachypnoea or bradyproea, Mr Coles respiration rate was observed and recorded at 16 breaths per minute, oxygen saturation was 98% at that moment, he could breathe clearly without struggle and no whizzing noise was heard during the assessment. Ability to undertake a swift assessment of the clients ability to breathe and instigate removal of an obstructive and/or rescue breathing if needed is crucial. Factors which may affect breathing includes: psychological; stress, anxiety or depressions. Sociocultural; smoking, level of family support. Environmental; pollution or work related factor. Politico-economic; poor diet and or limited finances. Past history; past illness. Eating and drinking According to Catherine Caskett, good nutritional status is essential to an individuals health and well-being. Poor nutritional status as been associated with delayed recovery and an increase in mortality, which also increase the cost of health care. As the assessment continues, Mr Coles family was encouraged to discuss the patients diet history, medical history, social setting and his usual weight. Information given shows that Mr Cole has lost weight during the past 2weeks and due to his current condition he is prone to loosing more weight if a goal is not set to minimise his diarrhoea. Taylor (1997) state that diarrhoea can have profound physiological and psychosocial consequences on a patient. Severe or extended episode of diarrhoea may result in dehydration, electrolyte imbalance and malnutrition. Food aversions may develop or patient may stop eating altogether as they anticipate subsequent diarrhoea following in take. Consequently, this leads to weight lose and malnutrition. Mr Cole refused to eat and drink since the time of his admission. His weight and height was measured to calculate his body mass index (BMI) to monitor his weigh pattern whether gain or lose. According to bacon (1996) it was stated that body mass index is on of the most commonly used indices for assessing the weight status of adult patient. Mr Coles BMI measurement was 18 which prove that he was malnourished and underweight. Garbett(1999) argued that in nursing , it is important to understand anatomy and physiology of the body in order to detect any abnormalities, and make necessary intervention. Roper et al, (2000) stated that in the model of nursing, the state of individual in anatomical and physiological terms is planning and implementing relevant nursing intervention and evaluate the effects to help Mr Cole maintain sufficient food and water intake, he was prescribed IV fluids 200ml hourly and offered him frusibin energy drink. Mr Coles family were also encouraged to bring patients preferred drink and food which in turn might appeal him and help restore his appetite. Mr Cole was offered halal meal which is similar to that he has at home, reflecting religion and ethnic background. Small amount of food were presented because large r amounts may cause him to experience chest pain due to abdominal distension. (Redfern and Ross, 2001). A member of multi disciplinary team such as dietician was informed of his nutritional status. Eliminating This process is essential to life. Ability to maintain a balance between what amount to retain and excrete is important to patients well-being and preserve life. This can be a very sensitive topic to discuss with patients as many patient s despair at the thought of being unable to manage their own toilet requirements. Many of nursing interventions required are of a very intimate nature, and gaining the patients trust and consent along with their permission is very crucial. Mr Cole came in with frequent bowel movement which occur around 4 times every hour, he also experience abdominal cramp each time. During assessment, patient was very distress due to his condition because he has to cope with increased frequency of bowel movement, abdominal pains, proctitis and anal or perianal skin breakdown. Mr Cole was incontinence and was provided with commode for his private use to preserve his privacy and dignity during his episodes of diarrhoea. Mr Cole never had diarrhoea before and this episode of diarrhoea started after prolonged use of antibiotics prescribed for his pneumonia. After the assessment, a stool and fluid chart was implemented immediately; this includes noting the consistency and colour of stool, presence of blood, smell and type. To complete a fluid chart, patients input and output need to be monitored, recorded and documented on a fluid chart. Chart to be updated after every bowel motion type to be recorded using Bristol Stool Scales. According to (Wei et al 1997), initial treatment involves discontinuing antibiotics and providing supportive care. Mr Cole was prescribed vancomycin 500mg every six hours and paracetamol 500mg every 6 to 8 hours to control his pain and diarrhoea. A sample from the faeces was sent to lab for further investigation. Personal cleansing and dressing This activity involve far more than the physical act of cleansing the skin to reduce the potential of infection and injury. Personal cleansing and dressing is also important in promoting the psychological, social, cultural and overall well-being of the patient. Assessing the patient is important so as to offer them adequate level of assistance and to provide client with necessary information to help them maintain their personal hygiene needs. Mr Cole is independent with his personal care and requires no help to maintain good personal hygiene. However he needs prompting according to his son, patient can sometimes neglect himself. Information shows that patient lived with his son and daughter in-law, however he will soon be moving on to live in a shelter home. His moving had a great psychological and emotional strain on both his family and himself, especially considering the new environment he was going to live in. they were worry about how he was going to cope. Newton argues that anxiety mainly become a coping strategy like Mr. Cole felt his ill health inhibited him form staying with his family hence the high level of anxiety. Alexander et al (2002) believe that a patients anxiety may contribute to their symptoms getting worse than they actually are. From the outcome of assessment, I have learnt that psychological support is vital in anxious patients. Following the assessment, the nurses and other members of multi-disciplinary team liaised effectively to provide the care by responding to query raised by the nursing team e.g. psychologist for him and his family to address their anxiety and emotional worries. According to Hudak et al (2000) social cultural needs may refers to needs relating to the enlightenment of the mind or manners especially through intellectual activities , customs, culture and kinship system, lifestyle and habits and mutual relations of people around us and environment we are brought up in. As a function that is vital to sustain life, diarrhoea can cause anxiety, fatigue, sleep disturbances, feeling of isolation and depression (Roberts 1993: Hogan 1998). The impact on the ability to engage in necessary activities of living might result in dependence on others, loss of social and family roles and reduced quality of life (Margereson, 2001). Mr Cole belongs to Sikh religion therefore he is encourage and supported by family to socialise by visiting the temple regularly (twice a week) and celebrates other special occasions such as Diwali and birthdays. Family support is very important as it decreases the individuals stress (rock 1984 cited by Margereson). Failure to provide appropriate support may contribute to further psychological stress (Margereson, 2001). In conclusion, the frame work used helped to determine the patients ability in relation to activities of daily leaving. It has aid delivery of holistic care as each factor of each activity as been assessed and his level of independence or dependence determined to provide adequate level of care and nursing intervention. by using this simple framework, Roper, Logan and Tierneys help to direct our thinking in a more logical, sequential way and if every aspect of each activity is covered when patients are assessed a clear picture of their individual needs should emerge without the omission of any important point. However, the model has been criticised not to meet the needs of patient with learning disability or mental health problems. It also has a danger of reductionist approach in which patient are made to fit into the boxes rather than allowing flexibility. Nursing intervention is very important to help patient regain their normal self. One of these interventions includes pharmalogical approach and just simply providing a comfortable environment which enable client maintain his sexuality and dignity. For every nursing practice, there must be a rationale for decision on evidence based research other than experience as this defend care giving and safe guide the patients. An effective care requires not only a full understanding of patients particular illness, but also a grounding in social and physical science so that experience of each individual and family can be interpreted accurately. .

The Importance of Setting in The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins

  Ã‚  Ã‚   A review of the house itself suggests that an architectural hierarchy of privacy increases level by level. At first, the house seems to foster romantic sensibilities; intrigued by its architectural connotations, the narrator embarks upon its description immediately--it is the house that she wants to "talk about" (Gilman 11). Together with its landscape, the house is a "most beautiful place" that stands "quite alone . . . well back from the road, quite three miles from the village" (Gilman 11). The estate's grounds, moreover, consist of "hedges and walls and gates that lock" (Gilman 11). As such, the house and its grounds are markedly depicted as mechanisms of confinement--ancestral places situated within a legacy of control and supervision.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These are the exterior apparatuses that create and enforce the bedroom as a monitoring device, structuring interior space by exceeding its very boundaries, expanding beyond the egresses of the household in an effort to maintain the interior/exterior polarity. The result is a privacy within the privacy of the home. The bedroom becomes the locus of what Wigley calls a "secret privacy;" it is its own interior wrought with overtones of mystery and intrigue (345).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Because the bedroom in "The Yellow Wallpaper" veils both sexuality and the female body, and is involved in the production of secrets, the bedroom and the body are linked: both are secret, and both contain secrets. Associated with connotations of private, intimate, enclosed space, the bedroom ultimately suggests other such spaces. The bedroom becomes a metaphor for the female body and makes the body manageable, controllable. Writing about the body and secrecy, Ludmilla Jordanova notes: Veiling implies secrecy. Wome... ...iction. 17 (1989): 193-201. Haney-Peritz, Janice. "Monumental Feminism and Literature's Ancestral House: Another Look at 'The Yellow Wallpaper'" Women's Studies. 12 (1986): 113-128. Kasmer, Lisa. "Charlotte Perkins Gilman's 'The Yellow Wallpaper': A Symptomatic Reading." Literature and Psychology. 36, (1990): 1-15. Jordanova, Ludmilla. Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the 18th and 20th Centuries. London: Harrester Wheatsheaf, 1989. Mulvey, Laura. "Pandora: Topographies of the Mask and Curiosity." Sexuality and Space. Ed. Beatriz Colomina. Princeton: Princeton Papers on Architecture, 1992. 53-71. ------. "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema." Screen. 16 (1975): 6-18. Wigley, Mark. "Untitled: The Housing of Pleasure." Sexuality and Space. Ed. Beatriz Colomina. Princeton Papers on Architecture, 1992. 327-389.   

Spirit Bound Chapter Twenty

â€Å"YOU'RE NOT MOROI!† HE CONTINUED. He wasn't shouting, but we'd definitely gotten the attention of the people standing near us. â€Å"You're Rose Hathaway, aren't you? How dare you and your impure blood invade the sanctity of our–â€Å" â€Å"That's enough,† a lofty voice suddenly said. â€Å"I'll take it from here.† Even with her face covered, there was no mistaking that voice. Tatiana swept in beside the guy, wearing a silver flowered mask and a long-sleeved gray dress. I'd probably seen her earlier in the crowd and not even realized it. Until she spoke, she blended in with everyone else. The whole room was quiet now. Daniella Ivashkov scurried up behind Tatiana, her eyes widening behind her mask when she recognized me. â€Å"Adrian–† she began. But Tatiana was seizing the situation. â€Å"Come with me.† There was no question that the order was for me or that I would obey. She turned and walked swiftly toward the room's entrance. I hurried behind her, as did Adrian and Daniella. As soon as we were out in the torch-lit hall, Daniella turned on Adrian. â€Å"What were you thinking? You know I don't mind you bringing Rose to certain events, but this was–â€Å" â€Å"Inappropriate,† said Tatiana crisply. â€Å"Although, perhaps it is fitting that a dhampir see how much the sacrifices of her people are respected.† That shocked us all into a moment of silence. Daniella recovered herself first. â€Å"Yes, but tradition states that–â€Å" Tatiana interrupted her again. â€Å"I'm well aware of the tradition. It's a bad breach of etiquette, but Rosemarie being here certainly doesn't ruin our intentions. Losing Priscilla†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Tatiana didn't choke up, exactly, but she lost some of her normal composure. I didn't think of someone like her as having a best friend, but Priscilla pretty much had been. How would I act if I'd lost Lissa? Not nearly so controlled. â€Å"Losing Priscilla is something I'll feel for a very, very long time,† Tatiana managed at last. Her sharp eyes were on me. â€Å"And I hope you really do understand how much we need and value you and all the other guardians. I know sometimes your race feels underappreciated. You aren't. Those who died have left a gaping hole in our ranks, one that leaves us even more undefended, as I'm sure you must know.† I nodded, still surprised Tatiana wasn't shrieking for me to get out. â€Å"It's a big loss,† I said. â€Å"And it makes the situation worse because numbers are what harm us half the time–especially when the Strigoi form large groups. We can't always match that.† Tatiana nodded, seeming pleasantly surprised we'd agreed on something. That made two of us. â€Å"I knew you'd understand. Nonetheless†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She turned toward Adrian. â€Å"You shouldn't have done this. Some lines of propriety need to be maintained.† Adrian was surprisingly meek. â€Å"Sorry, Aunt Tatiana. I just thought it was something Rose should see.† â€Å"You'll keep this to yourself, won't you?† asked Daniella, turning back to me. â€Å"A lot of the guests are very, very conservative. They wouldn't want this getting out.† That they met by firelight and played dress-up? Yeah, I could see them wanting that kept a secret. â€Å"I won't tell anyone,† I assured them. â€Å"Good,† said Tatiana. â€Å"Now, you should still probably leave before–is that Christian Ozera?† Her eyes had drifted back toward the crowded room. â€Å"Yes,† both Adrian and I said. â€Å"He didn't get an invitation,† exclaimed Daniella. â€Å"Is that your fault too?† â€Å"It's not my fault so much as my genius,† said Adrian. â€Å"I doubt anyone will know, so long as he behaves himself,† said Tatiana with a sigh. â€Å"And I'm sure he'd take any opportunity he can to talk to Vasilisa.† â€Å"Oh,† I said, without thinking. â€Å"That's not Lissa.† Lissa had actually turned her back toward Christian and was speaking to someone else while casting anxious looks out the door at me. â€Å"Who is it?† asked Tatiana. Crap. â€Å"That's, um, Mia Rinaldi. She's a friend of ours from St. Vladimir's.† I'd almost considered lying and giving her a royal name. Some families were so big that it was impossible to keep track of everyone. â€Å"Rinaldi.† Tatiana frowned. â€Å"I think I know a servant with that name.† I was actually pretty impressed that she knew the people who worked for her. Yet again, my opinion of her shifted. â€Å"A servant?† asked Daniella, giving her son a warning look. â€Å"Is there anyone else I should know about?† â€Å"No. If I'd had more time, I probably could have got Eddie here. Hell, maybe even Jailbait.† Daniella looked scandalized. â€Å"Did you just say Jailbait?† â€Å"It's just a joke,† I said hastily, not wanting to make this situation worse. I was afraid of how Adrian might answer. â€Å"It's what we sometimes call our friend Jill Mastrano.† Neither Tatiana nor Daniella seemed to think that was a joke at all. â€Å"Well, no one seems to realize they don't belong,† said Daniella, nodding toward Christian and Mia. â€Å"Though the gossips here will no doubt be running wild with how Rose interrupted this event.† â€Å"Sorry,† I said, feeling bad that I might have gotten her in trouble. â€Å"Nothing to be done for it now,† said Tatiana wearily. â€Å"You should leave now so that everyone thinks you were severely chastised. Adrian, you come back with us and make sure your other ‘guests' don't raise any attention. And do not do something like this again.† â€Å"I won't,† he said, almost convincingly. The three began to turn away, leaving me to skulk off, but Tatiana paused and glanced back. â€Å"Wrong or not, don't forget what you saw here. We really do need guardians.† I nodded, a flush of pride running through me at her acknowledgment. Then she and the others returned to the room. I watched them wistfully, hating that everyone in there thought I'd been kicked out in disgrace. Considering it could have gone a lot worse for me, I decided to count my blessings. I removed the mask, having nothing more to hide, and made the trek back upstairs and outdoors. I hadn't gotten very far when someone stepped out in front of me. It was a sign of my preoccupation that I nearly leapt ten feet in the air. â€Å"Mikhail,† I exclaimed. â€Å"You scared me half to death. What are you doing out here?† â€Å"Actually, I've been looking for you.† There was an anxious, nervous look about him. â€Å"I went by your building earlier, but you weren't around.† â€Å"Yeah, I was at the Masquerade of the Damned.† He stared at me blankly. â€Å"Never mind. What's up?† â€Å"I think we might have a chance.† â€Å"Chance for what?† â€Å"I heard you tried to see Dimitri today.† Ah, yes. The topic I definitely wanted to think more about. â€Å"Yeah. ‘Try' is pretty optimistic. He doesn't want to see me, never mind the army of guardians blocking me out.† Mikhail shifted uncomfortably, peering around like a frightened animal. â€Å"That's why I came to find you.† â€Å"Okay, I'm really not following any of this.† I was also starting to get a headache from the wine. Mikhail took a deep breath and exhaled. â€Å"I think I can sneak you in to see him.† I waited for a moment, wondering if there was a punch line coming or if maybe this was all some delusion born out of my wound-up emotions. Nope. Mikhail's face was deadly serious, and while I still didn't know him that well, I'd picked up enough to realize he didn't really joke around. â€Å"How?† I asked. â€Å"I tried and–â€Å" Mikhail beckoned for me to follow. â€Å"Come on, and I'll explain. We don't have much time.† I wasn't about to waste this chance and hurried after him. â€Å"Has something happened?† I asked, once I'd caught up to his longer stride. â€Å"Did†¦ did he ask for me?† It was more than I dared to hope for. Mikhail's use of the word sneak didn't really support that idea anyway. â€Å"They've lightened his guard,† Mikhail explained. â€Å"Really? How many?† There had been about a dozen down there when Lissa visited, including her escort. If they'd come to their senses and realized they only needed a guy or two on Dimitri, then that boded well for everyone accepting that he was no longer Strigoi. â€Å"He's down to about five.† â€Å"Oh.† Not great. Not horrible. â€Å"But I guess even that means they're a little closer to believing he's safe now?† Mikhail shrugged, keeping his eyes on the path ahead of us. It had rained during the Death Watch, and the air, while still humid, had cooled a little. â€Å"Some of the guardians do. But it'll take a royal decree from the Council to officially declare what he is.† I almost came to a halt. â€Å"Declare what he is?† I exclaimed. â€Å"He's not a what! He's a person. A dhampir like us.† â€Å"I know, but it's out of our hands.† â€Å"You're right. Sorry,† I grumbled. No point in shooting the messenger. â€Å"Well, I hope they get off their asses and come to a decision soon.† The silence that followed spoke legions. I gave Mikhail a sharp glare. â€Å"What? What aren't you telling me?† I demanded. He shrugged. â€Å"The rumor is that there's some other big thing being debated in the Council right now, something that takes priority.† That enraged me too. What in the world could take priority over Dimitri? Calm, Rose. Stay calm. Focus. Don't let the darkness make this worse. I always fought to keep it buried, but it often exploded in times of stress. And this? Yeah, this was a pretty stressful time. I shifted back to the original topic. We reached the holding building, and I took the steps up two at a time. â€Å"Even if they've lightened the guardians on Dimitri, they still won't let me in. The ones that are there would know I was ordered to keep away.† â€Å"A friend of mine's covering the front shift right now. We won't have long, but he'll tell the guardians in the holding area that you were authorized to come down.† Mikhail was about to open the door, and I stopped him, putting my hand on his arm. â€Å"Why are you doing this for me? The Moroi Council might not think Dimitri's a big deal, but the guardians do. You could get in big trouble.† He looked down at me, again with that small, bitter smile. â€Å"Do you have to ask?† I thought about it. â€Å"No,† I said softly. â€Å"When I lost Sonya†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Mikhail closed his eyes for a heartbeat, and when he opened them, they seemed to be staring off into the past. â€Å"When I lost her, I didn't want to go on living. She was a good person–really. She turned Strigoi out of desperation. She saw no other way to save herself from spirit. I would give anything–anything–for a chance to help her, to fix things between us. I don't know if that'll ever be possible for us, but it is possible for you right now. I can't let you lose this.† With that, he let us in, and sure enough, there was a different guardian on duty. Just as Mikhail had said, the guy called down to tell the jail guardians Dimitri had a visitor. Mikhail's friend seemed incredibly nervous about it all, which was understandable. Still, he was willing to help. It was amazing, I thought, what friends would do for each other. These last couple of weeks were undeniable proof of that. Just like at Lissa's visit, two guardians showed up to escort me downstairs. I recognized them from when I'd been in her head, and they seemed surprised to see me. If they'd overheard Dimitri adamantly saying he didn't want me to visit, then my presence would indeed be shocking. But as far as they knew, someone in power had condoned me being here, so they asked no questions. Mikhail trailed us as we wound our way down, and I felt my heartbeat and breathing grow rapid. Dimitri. I was about to see Dimitri. What would I say? What would I do? It was almost too much to comprehend. I had to keep mentally slapping myself to focus, or else I was going to slide into dumbstruck shock. When we reached the hallway that held the cells, I saw two guardians standing in front of Dimitri's cell, one at the far end, and two others by the entrance we'd come through. I stopped, uneasy about the thought of others overhearing me talk to Dimitri. I didn't want an audience like Lissa had had, but with the emphasis on security here, I might not have a choice. â€Å"Can I get a little privacy?† I asked. One of my escorts shook his head. â€Å"Official orders. Two guardians have to be posted at the cell at all times.† â€Å"She's a guardian,† pointed out Mikhail mildly. â€Å"So am I. Let us go. The rest can wait by the door.† I flashed Mikhail a grateful look. I could handle having him nearby. The others, deciding we would be safe enough, moved discreetly to the ends of the hall. It wasn't total and complete privacy, but they wouldn't hear everything. My heart felt ready to burst from my chest as Mikhail and I walked over to Dimitri's cell and faced it. He was seated almost as he had been when Lissa arrived: on the bed, curled up into himself, back facing us. Words stuck in my throat. Coherent thought fled from my mind. It was like I'd totally forgotten the reason I'd come here. â€Å"Dimitri,† I said. At least, that's what I tried to say. I choked up a little, so the sounds that came out of my mouth were garbled. It was apparently enough, though, because Dimitri's back suddenly went rigid. He didn't turn around. â€Å"Dimitri,† I repeated, more clearly this time. â€Å"It's†¦ me.† There was no need for me to say any more. He'd known from that first attempt at his name who I was. I had a feeling he would have known my voice in any situation. He probably knew the sound of my heartbeat and breathing. As it was, I think I stopped breathing while I waited for his response. When it came, it was a little disappointing. â€Å"No.† â€Å"No what?† I asked. â€Å"As in, no, it's not me?† He exhaled in frustration, a sound almost–but not quite–like the one he used to make when I did something particularly ridiculous in our trainings. â€Å"No, as in I don't want to see you.† His voice was thick with emotion. â€Å"They weren't supposed to let you in.† â€Å"Yeah. Well, I kind of found a work-around.† â€Å"Of course you did.† He still wouldn't face me, which was agonizing. I glanced over at Mikhail, who gave me a nod of encouragement. I guessed I should be glad that Dimitri was talking to me at all. â€Å"I had to see you. I had to know if you were okay.† â€Å"I'm sure Lissa's already updated you.† â€Å"I had to see for myself.† â€Å"Well, now you see.† â€Å"All I see is your back.† It was maddening, yet every word I got out of him was a gift. It felt like a thousand years since I'd heard his voice. Like before, I wondered how I could have ever confused the Dimitri in Siberia with this one. His voice had been identical in both places, the same pitch and accent, yet as a Strigoi, his words had always left a chill in the air. This was warm. Honey and velvet and all sorts of wonderful things wrapping around me, no matter the terrible things he was saying. â€Å"I don't want you here,† said Dimitri flatly. â€Å"I don't want to see you.† I took a moment to assess strategy. Dimitri still had that depressed, hopeless feel around him. Lissa had approached it with kindness and compassion. She'd gotten through his defenses, though a lot of that was because he regarded her as his savior. I could try a similar tactic. I could be gentle and supportive and full of love–all of which were true. I loved him. I wanted to help him so badly. Yet I wasn't sure that particular method would work for me. Rose Hathaway was not always known for the soft approach. I did, however, play on his sense of obligation. â€Å"You can't ignore me,† I said, trying to keep my volume out of range of the other guardians. â€Å"You owe me. I saved you.† A few moments of silence passed. â€Å"Lissa saved me,† he said carefully. Anger burned within my chest, just it had when I'd watched Lissa visit him. How could he hold her in such high regard but not me? â€Å"How do you think she got to that point?† I demanded. â€Å"How do you think she learned how to save you? Do you have any idea what we–what I–had to go through to get that information? You think me going to Siberia was crazy? Believe me, you haven't even come close to seeing crazy. You know me. You know what I'm capable of. And I broke my own records this time. You. Owe. Me.† It was harsh, but I needed a reaction from him. Some kind of emotion. And I got it. He jerked around, eyes glinting and power crackling through his body. As always, his movements were both fierce and graceful. Likewise, his voice was a mix of emotions: anger, frustration, and concern. â€Å"Then the best thing I can do is–â€Å" He froze. The brown eyes that had been narrowed with aggravation suddenly went wide with†¦ what? Amazement? Awe? Or perhaps that stunned feeling I kept having when I saw him? Because suddenly, I was pretty sure he was experiencing the same thing I had earlier. He'd seen me plenty of times in Siberia. He'd seen me just the other night at the warehouse. But now†¦ now he was truly viewing me with his own eyes. Now that he was no longer Strigoi, his whole world was different. His outlook and feelings were different. Even his soul was different. It was like one of those moments when people talked about their lives flashing before their eyes. Because as we stared at one another, every part of our relationship replayed in my mind's eye. I remembered how strong and invincible he'd been when we first met, when he'd come to bring Lissa and me back to the folds of Moroi society. I remembered the gentleness of his touch when he'd bandaged my bloodied and battered hands. I remembered him carrying me in his arms after Victor's daughter Natalie had attacked me. Most of all, I remembered the night we'd been together in the cabin, just before the Strigoi had taken him. A year. We'd known each other only a year, but we'd lived a lifetime in it. And he was realizing that too, I knew, as he studied me. His gaze was all-powerful, taking in every single one of my features and filing them away. Dimly, I tried to recall what I looked like today. I still wore the dress from the secret meeting and knew it looked good on me. My eyes were probably bloodshot from crying earlier, and I'd only had time for a quick brushing of my hair before heading off with Adrian. Somehow, I doubted any of it mattered. The way Dimitri was looking at me†¦ it confirmed everything I'd suspected. The feelings he'd had for me before he'd been turned–the feelings that had become twisted while a Strigoi–were all still there. They had to be. Maybe Lissa was his savior. Maybe the rest of the Court thought she was a goddess. I knew, right then, that no matter how bedraggled I looked or how blank he tried to keep his face, I was a goddess to him. He swallowed and forcibly gained control of himself, just like he always had. Some things never changed. â€Å"Then the best thing I can do,† he continued calmly, â€Å"is to stay away from you. That's the best way to repay the debt.† It was hard for me to keep control and maintain some sort of logical conversation. I was as awestruck as he was. I was also outraged. â€Å"You offered to repay Lissa by staying by her side forever!† â€Å"I didn't do the things†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He averted his eyes for a moment, again struggling for control, and then met mine once more. â€Å"I didn't do the things to her that I did to you.† â€Å"You weren't you! I don't care.† My temper was starting to burn again â€Å"How many?† he exclaimed. â€Å"How many guardians died last night because of what I did?† â€Å"I†¦ I think six or seven.† Harsh losses. I felt a small pang in my chest, recalling the names read off in that basement room. â€Å"Six or seven,† Dimitri repeated flatly, anguish in his voice. â€Å"Dead in one night. Because of me.† â€Å"You didn't act alone! And I told you, you weren't you. You couldn't control yourself. It doesn't matter to me–â€Å" â€Å"It matters to me!† he shouted, his voice ringing through the hallway. The guardians at each end shifted but didn't approach. When Dimitri spoke again, he kept his voice lower, but it was still trembling with wild emotions. â€Å"It matters to me. That's what you don't get. You can't understand. You can't understand what it's like knowing what I did. That whole time being Strigoi†¦ it's like a dream now, but it's one I remember clearly. There can be no forgiveness for me. And what happened with you? I remember that most of all. Everything I did. Everything I wanted to do.† â€Å"You're not going to do it now,† I pleaded. â€Å"So let it go. Before–before everything happened, you said we could be together. That we'd get assignments near each other and–â€Å" â€Å"Roza,† he interrupted, the nickname piercing my heart. I think he'd slipped up, not truly meaning to call me that. There was a twisted smile on his lips, one without humor. â€Å"Do you really think they're going to ever let me be a guardian again? It'll be a miracle if they let me live!† â€Å"That's not true. Once they realize you've changed and that you're really your old self†¦ everything'll go back to how it was.† He shook his head sadly. â€Å"Your optimism†¦ your belief that you can make anything happen. Oh, Rose. It's one of the amazing things about you. It's also one of the most infuriating things about you.† â€Å"I believed that you could come back from being a Strigoi,† I pointed out. â€Å"Maybe my belief in the impossible isn't so crazy after all.† This conversation was so grave, so heartbreaking, yet it still kept reminding me of some of our old practice sessions. He'd try to convince me of some serious point, and I'd counter it with Rose-logic. It would usually earn me a mix of amusement and exasperation. I had the feeling that were the situation just a little different, he'd have that same attitude now. But this was not a practice session. He wouldn't smile and roll his eyes. This was serious. This was life and death. â€Å"I'm grateful for what you did,† he said formally, still struggling to master his feelings. It was another trait we shared, both of us always working to stay in control. He'd always been better at it than me. â€Å"I do owe you. And it's a debt I can't pay. Like I said, the best thing I can do is stay out of your life.† â€Å"If you're part of Lissa's, then you can't avoid me.† â€Å"People can exist around each other without†¦ without there being any more than that,† he said firmly. It was such a Dimitri thing to say. Logic fighting emotion. And that's when I lost it. Like I said, he was always better at keeping control. Me? Not so much. I threw myself against the bars, so rapidly that even Mikhail flinched. â€Å"But I love you!† I hissed. â€Å"And I know you love me too. Do you really think you can spend the rest of your life ignoring that when you're around me?† The troubling part was that for a very long time at the Academy, Dimitri had been convinced he could do exactly that. And he had been prepared to spend his life not acting on his feelings for me. â€Å"You love me,† I repeated. â€Å"I know you do.† I stretched my arm through the bars. It was a long way from touching him, but my fingers reached out desperately, as though they might suddenly grow and be able to make contact. That was all I needed. One touch from him to know he still cared, one touch to feel the warmth of his skin and– â€Å"Isn't it true,† said Dimitri quietly, â€Å"that you're involved with Adrian Ivashkov?† My arm dropped. â€Å"Wh–where did you hear that?† â€Å"Things get around,† he said, echoing Mikhail. â€Å"They certainly do,† I muttered. â€Å"So are you?† he asked more adamantly. I hesitated before answering. If I told him the truth, he'd have more ground to make his point about us keeping apart. It was impossible for me to lie to him, though. â€Å"Yes, but–â€Å" â€Å"Good.† I'm not sure how I expected him to react. Jealousy? Shock? Instead, as he leaned back against the wall, he looked†¦ relieved. â€Å"Adrian's a better person than he gets credit for. He'll be good to you.† â€Å"But–â€Å" â€Å"That's where your future is, Rose.† A bit of that hopeless, world-weary attitude was returning. â€Å"You don't understand what it's like coming through what I did–coming back from being a Strigoi. It's changed everything. It's not just that what I did to you is unforgiveable. All my feelings†¦ my emotions for you†¦ they changed. I don't feel the way I used to. I might be a dhampir again, but after what I went through†¦ well, it's scarred me. It altered my soul. I can't love anyone now. I can't–I don't–love you. There's nothing more between you and me.† My blood turned cold. I refused to believe his words, not after the way he'd looked at me earlier. â€Å"No! That's not true! I love you and you–â€Å" â€Å"Guards!† Dimitri shouted, his voice so loud that it was a wonder the whole building didn't shake. â€Å"Get her out of here. Get her out of here!† With amazing guardian reflexes, the guards were down at the cell in a flash. As a prisoner, Dimitri wasn't in a position to make requests, but the authorities here certainly weren't going to encourage a situation that would create a commotion. They began herding Mikhail and me out, but I resisted. â€Å"No, wait–â€Å" â€Å"Don't fight it,† murmured Mikhail in my ear. â€Å"Our time's running out, and you couldn't have accomplished anything else today anyway.† I wanted to protest, but the words stuck on my lips. I let the guardians direct me out, but not before I gave Dimitri one last, lingering look. He had a perfect, guardian-blank look on his face, but the piercing way he stared at me made me certain there was a lot going on within him. Mikhail's friend was still on duty upstairs, which let us slip out without getting in–much–more trouble. As soon as we were outdoors, I came to a halt and kicked one of the steps angrily. â€Å"Damn it!† I yelled. A couple of Moroi across the courtyard–probably coming home from some late party–gave me startled looks. â€Å"Calm down,† said Mikhail. â€Å"This was the first time you've seen him since the change. There are only so many miracles you can expect right away. He'll come around.† â€Å"I'm not so sure,† I grumbled. Sighing, I looked up at the sky. Little wispy clouds moved lazily about, but I barely saw them. â€Å"You don't know him like I do.† Because while part of me thought that a lot of what Dimitri had said was indeed a reaction to the shock of returning to himself, there was another part of me that wondered. I knew Dimitri. I knew his sense of honor, his adamant beliefs about what was right and wrong. He stood by those beliefs. He lived his life by them. If he truly, truly believed that the right thing to do was to avoid me and let any relationship between us fade, well†¦ there was a good chance he might very well act on that idea, no matter the love between us. As I'd recalled earlier, he'd certainly shown a lot of resistance back at St. Vladimir's. As for the rest†¦ the part about him no longer loving me or being able to love anyone†¦ well, that would be a different problem all together if it were true. Both Christian and Adrian had worried there would be some piece of Strigoi left in him, but their fears had been about violence and bloodshed. No one would have guessed this: that living as a Strigoi had hardened his heart, killing any chance of him loving anyone. Killing any chance of him loving me. And I was pretty sure that if that was the case, then part of me would die too.

Locke, Berkeley & Hume

Locke, Berkeley & Hume Enlightenment began with an unparalleled confidence in human reason. The new science's success in making clear the natural world through Locke, Berkeley, and Hume affected the efforts of philosophy in two ways. The first is by locating the basis of human knowledge in the human mind and its encounter with the physical world. Second is by directing philosophy's attention to an analysis of the mind that was capable of such cognitive success. John Locke set the tone for enlightenment by affirming the foundational principle of empiricism: There is nothing in the intellect that was not previously in the senses. Locke could not accept the Cartesian rationalist belief in innate ideas. According to Locke, all knowledge of the world must ultimately rest on man's sensory experience. The mind arrives at sound conclusions through reflection after sensation. In other words the mind combines and compounds sensory impressions or ideas into more complex concepts building it's conceptual understanding. There was skepticism in the empiricist position mainly from the rationalist orientation. Locke recognized there was no guarantee that all human ideas of things genuinely resembled the external objects they were suppose to represent. He also realized he could not reduce all complex ideas, such as substance, to sensations. He did know there were three factors in the process of human knowledge: the mind, the physical object, and the perception or idea in the mind that represents that object. Locke, however, attempted a partial solution to such problems. He did this by making the distinction between primary and secondary qualities. Primary qualities produce ideas that are simply consequences of the subject's perceptual apparatus. With focusing on the Primary qualities it is thought that science can gain reliable knowledge of the material world. Locke fought off skepticism with the argument that in the end both types of qualities must be regarded as experiences of the mind. Lockes Doctrine of Representation was therefore undefendable. According to Berkley's analysis all human experience is phenomenal, limited to appearances in the mind. One's perception of nature is one's mental experience of nature, making all sense data objects for the mind and not representations of material substances. In effect while Locke had reduced all mental contents to an ultimate basis in sensation, Berkeley now further reduced all sense data to mental contents. The distinction, by Locke, between qualities that belong to the mind and qualities that belong to matter could not be sustained. Berkeley sought to overcome the contemporary tendency toward atheistic Materialism which he felt arose without just cause with modern science. The empiricist correctly aims that all knowledge rests on experience. In the end, however, Berkeley pointed out that experience is nothing more than experience. All representations, mentally, of supposed substances, materially, are as a final result ideas in the mind presuming that the existence of a material world external to the mind as an unwarranted assumption. The idea is that to be does not mean to be a material substance; rather to be means to be perceived by a mind. Through this Berkeley held that the individual mind does not subjectively determine its experience of the world. The reason that different individuals continually percieve a similar world and that a reliable order inheres in that world is that the world and its order depend on a mind that transcends individual minds and is universal (God's mind). The universal mind produces sensory ideas in individual minds according to certain regularities such as the laws of nature. Berkeley strived to preserve the empiricist orientation and solve Lockes representation problems, while also preserving a spiritual foundation for human experience. Just as Berkeley followed Locke, so did David Hume of Berkeley. Hume drove the empiricist epistemological critique to its final extreme by using Berkeley's insight only turning it in a direction more characteristic of the modern mind. Being an empiricist who grounded all human knowledge in sense experience, Hume agreed with Lockes general idea, and too with Berkeley's criticism of Lockes theory of representation, but disagreed with Berkeley's idealist solution. Behind Hume's analysis is this thought: Human experience was indeed of the phenomenal only, of sense impressions, but there was no way to ascertain what was beyond the sense impressions, spiritual or otherwise. To start his analysis, Hume distinguished between sensory impressions and ideas. Sensory impressions being the basis of any knowledge coming with a force of liveliness and ideas being faint copies of those impressions. The question is then asked, What causes the sensory impression? Hume answered None. If the mind analyzes it's experience without preconception, it must recognize that in fact all its supposed knowledge is based on a continuous chaotic volley of discrete sensations, and that on these sensations the mind imposes an order of its own. The mind can't really know what causes the sensations because it never experiences cause as a sensation. What the mind does experience is simple impressions, through an association of ideas the mind assumes a causal relation that really has no basis in a sensory impression. Man can not assume to know what exists beyond the impressions in his mind that his knowledge is based on. Part of Hume's intention was to disprove the metaphysical claims of philosophical rationalism and its deductive logic. According to Hume, two kinds of propositions are possible. One view is based purely on sensation while the other purely on intellect. Propositions based on sensation are always with matters of concrete fact that can also be contingent. It is raining outside is a proposition based on sensation because it is concrete in that it is in fact raining out and contingent in the fact that it could be different outside like sunny, but it is not. In contrast to that a proposition based on intellect concerns relations between concepts that are always necessary like all squares have four equal sides. But the truths of pure reason are necessary only because they exist in a self contained system with no mandatory reference to the external world. Only logical definition makes them true by making explicit what is implicit in their own terms, and these can claim no necessary relation to the nature of things. So, the only truths of which pure reason is capable are redundant. Truth cannot be asserted by reason alone for the ultimate nature of things. For Hume, metaphysics was just an exalted form of mythology, of no relevance to the real world. A more disturbing consequence of Hume's analysis was its undermining of empirical science itself. The mind's logical progress from many particulars to a universal certainty could never be absolutely legitimated. Just because event B has always been seen to follow event A in the past, that does not mean it will always do so in the future. Any acceptance of that law is only an ingrained psychological persuasion, not a logical certainty. The causal necessity that is apparent in phenomena is the necessity only of conviction subjectively, of human imagination controlled by its regular association of ideas. It has no objective basis. The regularity of events can be perceived, however, there necessity can not. The result is nothing more than a subjective feeling brought on by the experience of apparent regularity. Science is possible, but of the phenomenal only, determined by human psychology. With Hume, the festering empiricist stress on sense perception was brought to its ultimate extreme, in which only the volley and chaos of those perceptions exist, and any order imposed on those perceptions was arbitrary, human, and without objective foundation. For Hume all human knowledge had to be regarded as opinion and he held that ideas were faint copies of sensory impressions instead of vice – versa. Not only was the human mind less than perfect, it could never claim access to the world's order, which could not be said to exist apart from the mind. Locke had retained a certain faith in the capacity of the human mind to grasp, however imperfectly, the general outlines of an external world by means of combining operations. With Berkeley, there had been no necessary material basis for experience, though the mind had retained a certain independent spiritual power derived from God's mind, and the world experienced by the mind derived its order from the same source. Word Count: 1374